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A complimentary definition is given by Daniel Moi who states that leadership is the dynamic and catalytic ability of an individual or a group to liberate, engage and direct the constructive endeavors of a people for the betterment of individuals or whole communities, for their material prosperity and for their socio-cultural uplift, spiritual peace and mental productivity Moi, More specifically and based on this general background, political leadership is a part of a multi causal social process that brings about concrete political outcomes Greenstein, In this regard, leaders mobilize a significant number of followers to accept their diagnosis and policy prescriptions for collective problems or crises Masciulli, and both leader and followers are in the end affected by what they create Rousseau, A combination of these approaches gives a flexible definition of political leadership that could very easily fit any leadership style in Africa.

Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership is an ongoing process by which leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of morality and motivation; it basically converts followers into leaders and leaders into moral agents Burns, Such a leader moves the follower beyond immediate self-interests through idealized influence charisma , inspiration, intellectual stimulation, or individualized consideration Bass, This heightening of awareness requires a leader with vision, self-confidence and inner strength to argue successfully for what he sees as right or good not for what is popular or acceptable according to the established wisdom of time Bass, Nelson Mandela, the first black president of post-apartheid South Africa is one leader who very easily makes the cut of transformational leadership.

All these are mirrored in Mandela's leadership in South Africa, during and after apartheid. One only needs to listen to broadcasts from around the globe about Nelson Mandela's example of influence in their individual trajectories. These include citizens of South Africa, political leaders such as Barack Obama Obama, , spiritual leaders such as the Dalai Lama Dalai Lama, and even sporting organizations such as FIFA testament to the broad appeal of the principles he exemplified Obhi.

Leaders with inspirational motivation challenge followers with high standards communicate optimism about future goals and provide meaning for the task at hand. Nelson Mandela had a clear vision of a South Africa free from apartheid and was able to portray this vision despite his 27 years of incarceration by the same regime. He communicated this vision clearly to the people of South Africa and the world over, a vision that was realized as a result of among other things, this inspiration Obhi.

Transformational leadership style should also have a component of intellectual simulation whereby the leader encourages the followers to challenge the status quo and drive them towards innovation and creativity Avolio, Mandela's reconciliatory approach to fighting apartheid was creative in that he sought to have a South Africa that was free from apartheid and saw the equality of all races.

This resulted in an effective regime change without causing disharmony among the races Obhi. Mandela spearheaded the formation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission which sought to heal the nation after the nation's long period under the apartheid regime.

Through this, he recognized the ability of South Africans to live in harmony despite their differences and scarred past Obhi. This ideal form of leadership is without a doubt what the African continent needs in order to change the status quo on the continent. Additionally, such leadership should be emulated by young people seeking to be leaders. Participative Leadership Participative leadership involves efforts by a leader to encourage and facilitate participation by others in making important decisions Yukl, This type of leadership focuses on consultation, consensus building through public forums and even referendums.

Many countries in Africa have had numerous, even major and critical, constitutional changes brokered without any consultations with the public. The most commonly abused constitutional provision is perhaps the extension of presidential term limits.

Between and , 24 African presidents considered changing the provisions for tenure in their constitutions, 15 of which succeeded Dulani, Servant Leadership The premise of servant leadership is that the leader is one who seeks to serve and that this serving is a natural component of the leader Greenleaf, ; Farling, Stone, and Winston, Being a natural component of the leader, this leadership style is considered virtuous with the leader possessing specific virtues of agape love, humility, altruism, vision, trust, empowerment, and service Patterson, The main pillar of "Uhuru na Kazi" was "ujamaa and kujitegemea" solidarity and self-reliance.

In the pre-colonial era, Tanzania was largely a peasant agriculturalist society. This had changed markedly in its years under various colonial powers; the Portuguese , the German, and British into a large cash crop cultivating society supplying the industrial revolution in Europe.

It was against this background that Nyerere invoked his Ujamma na Kujitegemea policy, aimed at returning Tanzania to a self-sufficient agricultural economy. This was a deliberate strategy by Nyerere to break away from the colonial concept of modernization and dependency. The Village Executive Council established under the Ujamaa Villages Act equally made provision for each village to establish its own village assembly and a Village Executive Council.

The VEC had the power to initiate and coordinate their social, commercial, and economic ventures. According to the World Bank Annual Report of , between the periods of Ujamaa and , the indices of food production in Tanzania ranked one of the highest in Africa: percent in , percent in , and an annual average of The founding President's altruism was also evident in his voluntary decision to step down from power.

Authoritarian Leadership This is considered the most common and most publicized leadership model in Africa. Authoritarian leadership has greatly contributed to the problems with succession in Africa as well as an attack on democracy. Several factors can be attributed to creating this type of leadership style.

In the first two decades of independence in Africa, there were forty successful coups and countless attempted coups Meredith, Power in Africa was acquired by gun, rigging or giving power to handpicked successors. This inadvertently led to paranoia and leaders constantly feared being overthrown.

The end result was leaders' undivided focus on consolidating loyalty, scheming longer office tenure and silencing any dissension leading some to pursue violent methods. Idi Amin, for instance, acquired power by a coup, was prone to erratic behavior and believed that his more educated ministers and military officers were plotting his upheaval Meredith, ; Kaufman, Such thinking adversely affects the governance of a country seeing that the leader's attention would be on furthering his personal agenda rather than those of the state.

The rule of despotic leaders in Africa has been perpetuated by those close to and around them encouraging and cheering them on. In Nigeria, military generals around General Sani Abacha were key in helping him hold on to power and enabled his authoritarian and corrupt rule to go on for 15 years Dowden, For African leaders to break the cycle of dictatorship, they must break the circle of yes men, and women, around them.

For instance, the governor and deputy governor of the Bank of Uganda is a presidential appointee in a system that has little, if any, checks on the process Section 27 Bank of Uganda Act. Is Democratization a Solution? In Francis Fukuyama's seminal work The End of History and The Last Man, he makes the assertion that we can declare an end to the evolution of human society when all nations have completed their transition to liberal democracy, or Western type democracy Without gainsaying, the relative preference for democracy as a form of government vis a vis possible alternatives, Fukuyama's assertion gives way to the contested theories and realities of democratization.

In its origins in Hellenic political culture democracy was viewed as "government by the people". However, democracy's modern 18th-century definitions start to take life in the classical theory of Jean-Jacques Rousseau based on his idea of the "social contract" that creates an indivisible body that we are all a part of, and to which we cede our power to act. This collective will is to be exercised for the common good of all by the supreme wielder of power.

Samuel Huntington however warns of the challenges of ambiguity emerging when democracy is defined purely in terms of a source of authority or in terms of purposes, as the classical theory does. He simply states that the key procedure of democracy is that the leaders are selected by people they govern through the means of competitive elections.

Indeed Dahl suggests five criteria that governance systems should strive to fulfill in order to fulfill basic tenets of democracy. These are effective participation, voting equality, enlightened understanding amongst the population, and control of the agenda and inclusion of adults. This idea of polyarchical democracy is impossible to birth without critical institutions within the governance system that cater to varied needs.

This briefly sets up the framework within which we can test the measures and depths of democracy in African nations. Dahl's classification of critical institutions gives youthful Africans an analytical tool through which they may gauge the depth of democracy in their countries. For example, the presence and regularity of free and fair elections is a useful tool in gauging the progressive maturity of a country, so too the independence of the media and alternative voices in the society.

An effective leader finds more influence over followers by switching behavior, from task-oriented to relationship-oriented and back, based on the situation at hand. Contingency theory is presented to explain the impact of environmental factors and relationships with followers on leadership Fiedler, Like definitions of leadership, conceptions of leader effectiveness differ from one writer to another. The criteria selected to evaluate leadership effectiveness reflect a researcher's explicit or implicit conception of leadership.

Most researchers evaluate leadership effectiveness in terms of the consequences of influence on a single individual, a team or group, or an organization. One common indicator of leader effectiveness is the extent to which the performance of the team or organizational unit is enhanced and the attainment of goals is facilitated.

Examples of objective measures of performance include sales, net profits, profit margin, market share, return on investment, return on assets, productivity, cost per unit of output, costs in relation to budgeted expenditures, and change in the value of corporate stock.

Subjective measures of effectiveness include ratings obtained from the leader's superiors, peers, or subordinates. How well does the leader satisfy the needs and expectations of followers?

Do they like, respect, and admire the leader? Do they trust the leader and perceive him or her to have high integrity? Are they strongly committed to carrying out the leader's requests, or will they resist, ignore, or subvert them? Does the leader improve the quality of work life, build the self- confidence of followers, increase their skills, and contribute to their psychological growth and development? Follower attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs also provide an indirect indicator of dissatisfaction and hostility toward the leader.

Examples of such indicators include absenteeism, voluntary turnover, grievances, complaints to higher management, requests for transfer, work slowdowns, and deliberate sabotage of equipment and facilities Yukl, Leader effectiveness is occasionally measured in terms of the leader's contribution to the quality of group processes, as perceived by followers or by outside observers. Does the leader enhance group cohesiveness, member cooperation, member commitment, and member confidence that the group can achieve its objectives?

Bank credit to the private sector as percent of GDP. Liquid liabilities, percent of GDP. Bank assets, percent of GDP. Financial system deposits, percent of GDP. Bank credit to government and public enterprises, percent of GDP. Bank concentration: percent of bank assets held by top three banks. Foreign bank assets as percent of the total bank assets. People with bank accounts, percent of the population over 14 years of age.

Banking system efficiency and stability. Bank lending-deposit interest rate spread. Bank cost to income ratio, in percent. Non-performing loans as percent of all bank loans. Bank overhead costs, percent of total assets. Bank interest revenue, percent of interest-bearing assets. Bank credit as percent of bank deposits. Bank return on assets, in percent. Bank return on equity, in percent. Banking system z-scores. Bank liquid assets to deposits and short-term funding.

Bank non-interest income to total income, in percent. Interest rates on bank credit to the private sector. Real interest rate: Bank lending rate minus inflation. Credit information sharing index, 0 low - 8 high. Stock market, insurance, pensions. Investment financed with equity or stock sales, percent of total investment.

Life insurance premium volume, percent of GDP. Non-life insurance premium volume, percent of GDP. Insurance company assets, percent of GDP. Nonbank financial institutions assets, percent of GDP. Innovation measures. Innovations index Research and development expenditure, percent of GDP.

Information technology exports, percent of total goods exports. High technology exports. High tech exports, percent of manufactured exports. Patent applications by residents. Economic freedom indexes.

Property rights index Freedom from corruption index Fiscal freedom index Business freedom index Labor freedom index Monetary freedom index Trade freedom index Investment freedom index Financial freedom index Economic freedom, overall index Population size, in millions.

Percent urban population. Population density, people per square km. Population ages 65 and above, percent of total. Population ages , percent of total. Female population, percent of total. Rural population, percent of total population. Dependent people as percent of the working age population. Refugee population. Migrant population, percent of total population. Population growth, percent.

Health spending and outcomes. Health spending per capita. Health spending as percent of GDP. Life expectancy, in years. The number of crude births per people, per year.

Death rate, per people. Fertility rate, births per woman. Prevalence of HIV, percent of the population ages Cases of Tuberculosis per , people.

Percent rural population with access to drinking water. Percent urban population with access to drinking water. Suicide mortality rate, per , population. Percent of children ages months with DPT immunization. Percent of one-year-old children with Hepatitis B immunization. Percent of children ages months with measles immunization. Covid pandemic. New Covid cases per month. New Covid cases per million people.

Total Covid cases, end of month. Total Covid cases per million people. New Covid tests per month. New Covid tests per thousand people. Total Covid tests, end of month.

Total Covid tests per thousand people. New Covid vaccinations per month. Total Covid vaccinations, end of month. Total Covid vaccinations per hundred people. Total people vaccinated against Covid.

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